Geert Hofstede

Geert Hofstede started his research in the late sixties at IBM. He submitted a questionnaire on working climate to all IBM managers under the assumption that the differences in answers would represent national cultures (all people being in the same job). The answers were processed by a statistical technique (factor analysis), which discovers patterns in the way people are answering the questionnaire. These patterns or dimensions are then named according to their cultural aspect.

The first dimension is power distance, indicating whether a society accepts (large) differences in power or not.

The second dimension is masculinity versus femininity, a focus on achievement and success on the one hand and care for others and the quality of life on the other.

Thirdly, uncertainty avoidance indicates whether people accept a high degree of uncertainty or not. If not, they may try to decrease uncertainty by stressing rules and procedures.

Finally, the orientation on the group or the individual person is indicated by the fourth dimension, comparable to what has been mentioned on the research by Pinto in Culture 1. Later research added two more dimensions but they are not fully consistent with the earlier research.

The stack on the left contains the definitions of these dimensions, indications of what high and low values on each dimension imply, as well as the consequences for organisations.

The criticism includes the fact that Hofstede did not start from a theory on national cultures; that IBM managers may be representative for their national cultures (in particular IT at the end of the sixties); and the naming of the different dimensions. Follow-up research has confirmed major parts of this theory and added countries to the list of countries for which data are available.